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These are maps that may be produced in response to a particular hazard (e.g. earthquake, flood, storm, conflict, etc.). They should be supported by the core maps.
Click through on each map to explore how they might be useful.
There are a number of different maps that can be created as part of a response to an armed conflict or other situations of violence.
Geological hazards include events such earthquakes, landslides and volcanos and there are a range of maps and products that can be produced before and after the event or events. Often when there is one event there may be secondary hazards and events. For example, after an earthquake there may be aftershocks, a tsunami, liquefaction or landslides.
These are maps depicting the hazards and impacts of landslides or other mass movements such as snow avalanches.
Usually operational.
Situational.
When landslides pose the main or a secondary humanitarian hazard, particularly in association with earthquakes or storm events (particularly after very heavy rainfall). Maps may be produced to identify areas vulnerable to landslides in order to identify at risk communities, or to prioritise on-the-ground or aerial damage assessments. Landslides may also be mapped to identify barriers to access to disaster-affected areas.
All responders, but particularly those working on assessment processes and response planning and coordination. Also, when relevant, logistics planning actors.
Landslides can have a direct impact on communities, and can also block access to large areas of land. Maps showing known/confirmed landslides may be valuable as proxy indicators of likely damage and needs after an earthquake or storm event. Predictive mapping should be used only with caution.
Predictive mapping of landslides may use spatial variables such as earthquake shake intensity, slope angles and cumulative rainfall statistics.
Data on actual landslides can be reliably obtained from ground level, aerial or satellite remote sensing. If these are included on maps, then any areas not analysed should be clearly identified to avoid "no data = no impact" confusions.
In the case of earthquakes: modelled shake intensity (as polygons).
In the case of storms events: cumulative rainfall data – typically from national or regional meteorological agencies.
Terrain data allowing analysis of average slope angles.
Reported landslide locations (points or polygons) derived from ground survey, aerial or satellite imagery.
Maps produced in response to a disease outbreak or epidemic, depicting the incidence and spread of the disease, public health countermeasures, or both.
Both
Situational.
Mapping may be in demand at all stages of a disease outbreak.
All responders including health sector actors, but also other humanitarian responders including logistics, nutrition and other sectors.
Major disease outbreaks involving an international response are rare, however in such cases mapping may be an important tool for understanding the spatial progression of the infection, and for planning and coordinating health services for disease control and treatment, as well as addressing wider humanitarian needs arising due to the outbreak.
Disease characteristics vary (as shown in the 2014-15 Ebola outbreak), and so the spread of even a previously well-understood disease in a new context may be novel.
Epidemiologists may aspire to map outbreak data at a very granular level; however this should not be allowed to delay or compromise mapping of more generalised data (e.g. total number of cases at district level).
Effective management of the outbreak will depend on timely updates of case data and control measures. Standardised maps/infographics must therefore be capable of being rapidly updated and disseminated.
Maps of case incidence should show clearly the change in case rates – take advice from epidemiologists about intervals and other metrics.
Baselines: population data; pre-outbreak health indicators (although these will not normally be spatially discriminated); public water supply infrastructure (in the case of cholera or other waterborne diseases).
Case data for current and any previous outbreaks.
Healthcare infrastructure (usually collated by the Ministry of Health or health cluster).
Maps produced during a humanitarian response to earthquakes, visualising the seismic data and any data that may forecast the extent of physical damage and potentially act as a proxy for humanitarian impact. It may be combined with other thematic layers, notably with baseline population data to enable a rapid/early analysis of the population potentially affected.
Both
Situational.
At an early stage after the occurrence of a major earthquake with the potential to create damage and casualties. The necessary data will invariably be available within hours of the initial earthquake. Data and maps may be updated following aftershocks or to add additional analysis layers, including for example assessed landslide risk zones, vulnerable infrastructure (e.g. dams), or population baselines.
All responders, but particularly those operating across the wider affected area and including actors working on assessment processes and response planning and coordination.
The map will provide context to the potential scope and scale of earthquake. It shows them the location of the epicentre (and aftershocks) and the intensity in different areas. When this is shown with population data it will also give an indication of potentially where the most affected people will be. It will inform them of where potential search and rescue activity might be required.
Initial data, typically from United States Geological Survey (USGS) Earthquake alerts, will give basic indicators including the magnitude and location of the epicentre of the initial event and any aftershocks. This point data should be placed on the map first. It is not good practice to buffer circular rings around the epicentre as this may imply a spatially regular fall-off of damage which is very unlikely to reflect reality. As a large earthquake is “more appropriately described as a slip over a larger fault area” (USGS, see below), single points are poor representations of large earthquakes, so a map showing zones of ‘shake intensity’ provides more useful information. Analysed shake intensity zone data should be obtained mapped as soon as possible. Because this is modelled predictively rather and not ground truthed, it should be appropriately explained and have a caveat on maps. A suitable base map will normally include terrain and any available data on population distribution or population places.
Geophysical data is usually obtained from United States Geological Survey or others. This may include locations of reported epicentres of primary and aftershocks (as points), and modelled shake intensity (as polygons).
Data on predicted or actual landslides from various providers; but be cautious of the methods used to derive these as they may not be reliable.
Analysed satellite imagery to identify building damage; but be cautious because analysis methods may not have been standardised or reliable, and take special care to identify areas that have not been analysed.
Liquefaction will typically (but not exclusively) occur as a result of an earthquake and can cause significant destruction. Maps on liquefaction may show either areas at risk to it through complex modelling or post event areas and the damage caused by liquefaction.
Both
Baseline and situational.
Liquefaction modelling will occur before the event as a preparedness activity by a government, scientific or engineering organisation. Post event, mapping may happen as a result of field assessments or remote sensing analysis.
Anyone involved with planning will be interested in modelling maps and those involved with response will be interested in post disaster mapping.
Modelled maps will be used by planners and officials to understand the areas and populations that may be exposed and prone to liquefaction. If in the event of liquefaction responders, particularly the urban search and rescue teams, will be wanting to understand where liquefaction has occurred so that they can facilitate any rescues.
liquefaction modelling is a complex methodology and will required a range of datasets including rock and soil type, hydrology, buildings and seismological. Post disaster mapping should show the extent of the liquefaction, any damage to buildings and general infrastructure and also the population that has been affected. Satellite and aerial photography can be used to identify those areas, as well as field assessments.
Modelled liquefaction exposure
Pre and post disaster imagery to compare the areas before and after
Building and landuse
Population
Infrastructure
Maps produced to support clearance or other risk mitigation from unexploded ordnance or other explosive remnants of war. This may be due to generalised contamination of an area post-conflict or as a result of a specific explosive accident or deliberate act.
Operational.
Situational.
When there is a risk from unexploded ordnance with a potential humanitarian impact. This may be when humanitarian operations are being undertaken in an area affected by explosive remnants of war, or in the aftermath of a serious accident that may have caused dispersal of dangerous materials. Maps will invariably be produced under guidance from specialist agencies such as demining organisations.
Organisations involved in making an area safe, and humanitarian actors who need to work in an area believed to be affected by unexploded ordnance or other dangerous materials.
In addition to serving as an information tool for clearance operations, maps may also be important for clarifying which areas are deemed safe, thereby allowing aid agencies to operate.
Mapping will generally define zones/areas based on assessed hazards, and may split areas into sectors for technical and non-technical search operations. Such sectioning should normally be based on identifiable features on the ground, unless technical experts request otherwise.
Maps depicting military locations, even former ones, should be created and circulated with due regard to possible government and military sensitivities, which should be discussed with humanitarian coordination actors before publishing any maps.
Topographic mapping at large scale to identify terrain features. In urban areas, building footprints (e.g. OpenStreetMap data) may be of high importance.
Data on areas likely to pose high risks of contamination from explosive remnants of war, for example bridges, route choke points and former military defensive positions. Such data should be collected and used with due regard to sensitivities.
Operational sector and zone perimeter definitions provided by appropriately qualified specialist agencies.
Maps to support the process and outputs of an environmental assessment undertaken in the context of a humanitarian emergency.
Both.
Situational.
Rapid environmental assessments may be undertaken as part of the response to a potential or actual release of a pollutant that could cause large-scale human impact. This may be due to a specific technological/industrial accident, or where an elevated hazard is assumed due to a natural disaster such as a flood or earthquake. Such assessments may be coordinated by the Joint United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/OCHA Environment Unit.
While maps may be produced for specific technical users, maps will more generally be required for non- technical audiences, including humanitarian agencies and the potentially affected population themselves.
The identification of a potential threat from environmental pollutants may in certain cases be serious enough to drive decisions about the evacuation of vulnerable populations. In very severe situations such as the release of highly toxic materials, mapping may also be needed to enable responding agencies to operate safely.
Assessment outputs to be mapped will typically include potential or actual sources of pollution, and sensitive ‘receptors’ such as communities, water sources or agricultural assets.
Be cautious about inferring any predictive models of pollutant transport and dispersal; however it may certainly be relevant and useful to include generalised annotations such as river flow and prevailing wind directions.
Relevant baseline data of potential ‘receptors’ including populations, agriculture.
Watercourses and water bodies.
Locations of potentially polluting features such as industrial facilities, chemical storage sites etc
Where groundwater pollution may be involved: geological mapping and, if available, aquifers.
Landuse data such as as Modis or GlobCover.
Maps to assist in the planning for humanitarian responses that are expected to continue into the winter season. They help responders to plan for humanitarian responses under cold weather conditions, by identifying communities facilitate timely response to earthquake disasters, focusing on anticipated hazards and impacts of this type of event. Maps may be produced to coordinate urban search and rescue, to visualise access to affected areas, to analyse patterns of structural damage and assessed needs, and to plan a humanitarian response across multiple sectors.
Both.
Situational.
Disasters or complex emergencies may occur during wintertime, or humanitarian needs may be anticipated to continue into the cold season. Maps to assist in ‘winterisation’ may therefore be requested at an early stage of an emergency, well ahead of the onset of cold weather.
Humanitarian responders, particularly emergency shelter and camp coordination and management actors.
When population displacement has occurred or is threatened, the provision of climate-appropriate assistance is essential to avoid harm to vulnerable populations. It is particularly important to provide winterised shelter and also to reliably anticipate and plan for logistical access for relief assistance during winter months. Maps are essential for the spatial planning of winter relief operations.
If no historical temperature data is available, use elevation data as a proxy and annotate estimated winter low temperatures based on the lapse rate (approximately 6 degrees C per 1,000 metres elevation).
Overlay locations of vulnerable people, e.g. IDP camps, to highlight where winterisation programming is most likely to be a priority.
Topographic data with vectorised elevation to allow upland areas to be symbolised appropriately.
If available, historical average winter low temperature data and, if relevant, rainfall/snowfall data. This may be available from national or regional meteorological agencies.
Any data available on access to key routes during winter conditions.
Search and rescue maps are often produced during a humanitarian response to earthquakes, focusing on the hazards and impacts that typically characterise these emergencies. They should facilitate a timely response to earthquake disasters, focusing on anticipated hazards such as aftershocks, and the impacts of this type of event. Maps may be produced to coordinate urban search and rescue (USAR) efforts, to visualise access to affected areas, to analyse patterns of structural damage and assessed needs, or to plan a humanitarian response across multiple sectors.
Both
Situational.
Usually early on in the response, to provide initial predictive or actual impact information that can then highlight priorities for life-saving responses including urban search and rescue, and to focus in-field damage and needs assessment on areas most likely to be affected.
All responders, but particularly those operating across the wider affected area, and including actors working on assessment processes and response planning and coordination.
Earthquakes often affect very wide areas, much of which may be rendered inaccessible by the disaster. Initial response decisions including resource mobilisation should be taken in light of what can be inferred from predictors of physical damage, including geophysical mapping. However, such predictors should be used with caution, and should be triangulated as soon as possible with mapping of primary data such as field assessment reports.
Operationally, search and rescue teams require rapid detailed maps of collapsed site locations and search sector boundaries, as well as hospital locations and status, base of operations and other resources.
It is important to get street level mapping produced as early as possible, and the inclusion of satellite or aerial imagery may also help responders identify key features on the ground.
When producing a sector map use linear features that are easily identifiable on the ground post- earthquake, such as broad roads or rivers. Maps should include building outlines where possible or give an indication of building and population density. The greater the density the smaller the sectors should be, as these will most likely take the longest to search. Initial sectors may be quite large to begin with, but smaller sub-sectors may be created. Each sector or sub-sector should be given a unique ID so that rescue teams can identify them more easily. Maps should include a table showing the sector’s ID, the team that is working the area, and the team type (heavy, medium or light).
Roads
Building Type
Place names
Points of Interest
Hospitals
Analysed satellite imagery to identify building damage; but be cautious because analysis methods may not have been standardised or reliable, and take special care to identify areas that have not been analysed.
These are products that are produced in response to armed conflict or other situations of violence such as political unrest. A humanitarian response in this situation is likely to be multi-faceted, and so as many specific map types may be equally applicable in complex emergencies as in natural disasters. There is likely to be particular considerations given to mapping humanitarian access and protection issues, and to tracking recurring phases of displacement and return.
Both.
Situational.
Products may be in demand at all stages. Crises including conflict or violence may be protracted and exhibit multiple stages of impact on affected populations.
All humanitarian responders.
As with natural disasters, maps are important for multiple aspects of humanitarian responses to armed conflict and violence, including situational appreciation, needs assessment, mobilising resources, inter- agency coordination, safety and security of aid personnel, and monitoring of the response.